Developmental psychology – scientific study of changes in human behaviors and mental activities as they occur over a lifetime.

Begin with a theory – a set of ideas to explain what we see, organize info, leads to predictions about beh   

The knowledge acquired through research can influence how parents, teachers, social service agencies interact with children

6 major themes in dev psych

1. nature-nuture debate: is development result of genetic or environ infl (ex if intel is largely hereditary why bother having a rich learning environ, if primarily due to experiences rich learning environ imp

2. sociocultural context: children grow up in a community with customs, values, beliefs that affect how adults interact and what expect of children (ex children to be seen not heard, or = partic

          3. Does child play an active role in dev:simple passive sponge or does child also infl those around him/her through temperament, cognitions, beh.

          4. Dev in continuous process, quantitatively changing or in stages/steps that are qualitatively dif or “overlapping waves” in which the ability exhibited reflects a variety of dev and situational factors.

          5. indiv dif in dev: (ex some children more resilient, adapt more easily to difficult situations

          6.Many aspects to an individual’s development i.e. physical, perceptual, emotional, cognitive, social.

Hx perspectives

          Book very limited in cross cultural. Here espec note begin with Europe in medieval times took care of children’s basic needs food and shelter but as soon as physically able, age 6-7yrs incorp into adult world, no special clothes, toys, games. Some spoke of special illnesses of needs, not married before age 12yr, urged educate and parents helped children set up own households when older. In renaissance times begin seeing importance of early experience, guidance and training rather than harsh discipline.

Dev psych in US traces back to mid to late 1800s

Darwin/Preyer observed their own children for scientific reasons, looking at reflexes, emergence of movement, language, emotion.

Hall, collected data comparing groups of children using a questionnaire what do children know.

Binet in resp to request to screen students with learning prob dev tasks to measure motor skills, vocab, prob solving, higher order thinking processes unique to indiv child

Baldwin estab a laboratory to systematic study various aspects of dev and proposed a hierarchial process of genetic changes with steps toward devel of cog ability, sense of self and other

Freud biological instincts, tensions body progressively learn to control with mental structures and beh responses

Dev psych cont to dev, incr gathering info about norms of dev invl many disciplines incl anthrop, sociology, ed, med, bio etc

Dif theories of learning and dev

Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience. Dif approaches to understanding learning incl

1. classical conditioning         Pavlov – obs dogs salivate at arbitrary stimulus when paired with food  p 191 UCS UCR, CS, CR

          2. operant or instrumental conditioning Thornton research that behavior freq was dependent upon the response – incr if followed by reward or remove aversive event and decr if loss of reward or aversive outcome p 192

          3. social learning or observational learning Bandura – acquisition of roles, behaviors, beliefs through observation of others or models. Even at 6 months see deferred imitation, ability to imitate well after an activity has been demonstrated

4.cognitive development theory of learning – Piaget human dev based on bio adaptation (inborn tendency to adjust to environment) as indiv interacts with the external world

                   schemes – basic mental structure, a template for acting or thinking i.e. infants suck, shake, grasp everything. Schemes change through 2 processes

                   assimilation of new info into a scheme and

                   accommodation, modify beh, thinking to incorporate info that doesn’t fit scheme

                   equilibration each new exp of accommodation results in imbalance, corrected with new scheme (Piaget in later chap)

          5.information processing – humans like computers have limited capacity for taking in and processing info, focus on rules strategies and procedures to learn

          6. psychosocial approach Erickson each stage of dev conflicts/obstacles need to be resolved to dev healthy personality and productive relationships and lifestyle p 26

          7. contextual Bronfenbrenners ecological systems – indiv genetic/dev affected by immediate physical, social environ (family, daycare, school, peers) microsystem as well as (neighborhood, media, ) exosystem and societal beliefs/values macro systems p 29

          8. sociohistorical Vygotsky blends all these dif contexts into one concept of culture, incl language, values, beliefs, practices, exposed to daily, internalize and adopt

          9.evolutionary or ethological begin life with species specific behaviors , many have critical or sensitive periods in which highly resp to learning (ex imprinting or Bowlby’s babbling/crying/smiling infant signals)

CHAPTER 2 RESEARCH

Research based on scientific method, use of objective, measurable, repeatable techniques to gather information. Identify variables or factors that may influence behavior that is operationally defined or specified in measurable terms that have validity (actually measuring what set out to measure) and reliability (would give us the same results if repeated the study).

Methods of collecting data

1.    naturalistic observation (Darwin, Pryor, Piaget, you) observe in natural setting but aware that observer’s presence could influence findings participant reactivity or the observer’s interpretations could influence findings observer bias

2.    structured observation similar to naturalistic but set up a structured situation usually in a lab can observe particular interactions or behaviors. Limitations in that children may not act natural in a lab

3.    interview and questionnaire rather than observing asking directly, standardized questions that are administered orally (interview) or in written form (questionnaire)  Structured interview set questions clinical method more flexibility to questions. Limitation understand question, respond to put self in favorable light or to please interviewer.

4.    Meta – analytic statistically analyze body of research collected by other researchers, as researcher not designing each study variables, reliability and validity may vary, info need may not be form needed so valuable info could be lost but large data base

Research design

1. Correlational design look at correspondence between variables instead of manipulating variables. Positive correlation if both change in same direction. Negative correlation if scores on one in opposite direction to the other. Correlation coefficient or r. Higher the number stronger the relationship from -1 perfectly negative correlation to +1 perfectly positive correlation 0 is no correlation. So .70 or higher strong .2 or lower weak correlation. Limit not actively altering variable but often with people can’t also says nothing about causation, may be other factors impacting both correlated variables.

          2. Experimental design involves manipulating one or more independent variables to observe effect on dependent variables frequently in lab so can control as many variables as possible so not other influences on the study. Participants are randomly assigned to different groups including the treatment group in which will manipulate the variable and the control group that receives no extra treatment.  P47  Field experiments carried out in natural setting ex p 49 Quasi-experiments researcher finds groups with different independent variable wants to research but interpreted with caution as groups may differ in some way.

          3. Case study – in depth examination of a single individual can be very indepth info but how interpret re others. Can also do single-case design experiment in which alter a variable to see what occurs in this single case situation.

Strategies

1.    Longitudinal study – assess same sample at various pts in time usually over a span of many years ex Terman gifted children study p 53 ages 2-14 until in their 60s. Costly and difficult to keep track of participants, often frq testing alters results, may be dif in those who remain in study and can be age-history confound, may be historical/cultural changes that influence research findings. Change in clothing wear on an airplane

2.    Cross-sectional study children (indiv) of varying ages examined at the same time, receive the same i.e. interview, experiment and compare performance for dif ages so see differences without having to follow child longitudinally. Can be cohort effects, again sociohistorical context may infl

3.    sequential study mix of 1 and 2 follow dif age children for a few years

4.    cross cultural study  address questions of nature nuture, compare children from dif cultures around the world, careful both equally understand and can respond goal need to understand cultures (ethnography) to dev good study

Ethical issues in dev research

1.    informed consent – Participants understand the purposes, procedures and risks and agree to participate and have the right to decline participation.

2.    debriefed If not told true goals of study, afterward explain deception

3.    confidentiality  of data

how apply to children? P 60

CHAPTER 3 GENETICS AND HEREDITY

How much infl does a person genetic makeup have on their dev?

Genotype – genetic makeup indiv inherits

Phenotype is what we can observe and measure of the genotype, the characteristics and traits of individuals that dev scientists will research

Genetic makeup is transferred from one generation to the next through their genes within their chromosomes, chromosomes are the structures of DNA. Gametes (sex cells) carry 23 chromosomes, so the sperm and the egg join together to form the single cell with 46 chromosomes, the fertilized egg called a zygote that will then divide through duplication becoming a fetus, process called mitosis. Virtually all of the millions of dif cells in the newborn whether bone, skin, heart, brain etc contain the same genetic blueprint of the initial zygote. The gametes divide differently through a process called meiosis, and randomly the division through meiosis and mitosis yields more than 64 million possible combinations of gene pool for their offspring. We may get similar genes coded from mother and father homozygous or different genes coded heterozygous. If it is heterozygous the phenotype will show the dominant rather than the recessive characteristic

Some dev dif are inherited or are passed on through the genes or chromosomes. May see retardation i.e. Williams syndrome or Down’s syndrome, physical problems such as systic fibrosis or sickle cell disease, affect how look i.e. albinism, lack pigment in skin. Are prenatal tests to identify certain defects in fetal dev, amniocentesis – examine amniotic fluid or chorionic villus sampling – examine sample of villi from outer wall of uterus or fetal or maternal blood sampling raises ethical issues for some, elect to end pregnancy if a prob? If “wrong” sex?But also situations in which can address dif in utero or know what will need once born

Individuals that share the same zygote are called identical twins or monozygotic twins siblings who share the womb at the same time but come from two different zygotes are called fraternal or dizygotic twins.

Can study nature v nuture, what is genetic by looking at the concordance rate, the percentage of pairs of twins to have a specific trait in identical twins. But is it due to shared genetic material or the enviro? what if raised separately? May give a sense of the heritability the proportion of variability due to genetic vs environmental influences if compare with fraternal raised apart or compare to siblings reared together or apart or ½ siblings.

Other factors incr making it dif to distinguish genotype and enviro

passive link, does an intelligent parent pass down intel through their genes or style of parenting? And

evocative or reactive link -the genetic infl the reaction child gets from the enviro, an outgoing baby gets more positive rewards

active, niche picking link – child attracted by experiences compatible with genotype, passive child drawn to reading more than sports

Know it is not all genetics ex p 97 chart evidence that I.Q. has genetic factor yet p96 impact enviro, study bottom of page, 100 children of low income, mentally retarded mothers adopted before 6 months into econ and ed well above ave home displayed above ave intl and substantially higher IQ than bio parents.

As with I.Q. also genetic aspect to temperament and personality. chart pg 100

CHAPTER 4 PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

Fertilization – before infant girl is born has approx 5 million eggs in ovaries, by puberty perhaps 30,000. Of these approx 400 will mature and be released during child bearing yrs. A follicle, which houses an egg cell in the ovary will mature, rupture and release the egg cell or ovum which carries through the Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale(NBAS) dev by Brazelton toward the uterus at 1/16^th of an inch per hour. The Fallopian tube provides a receptive environment for fertilization if sperm are present. The ovum only survives for 24 hrs if not fertilized by sperm. Male sperm production begins at puberty 100-300 million sperm may be formed daily. The sperm maneuver through the vagina, the cervix and uterus to the Fallopian tube, moving several inches an hour, surviving 48 hours and sometimes longer. If an ovum is present the sperm is attracted to it, as soon as the sperm breaks through the egg’s protective linings enzymes transform the outer membrane to prevent other sperm from breaking through. The genetic material quickly mixes.

Begin the 1^st of 3 stages of the prenatal period, the time btwn conception and beginning of labor   Germinal or the period of the zygote is the first 10-14days following fertilization, incl cell division, migration and implantation into uterine wall. The zygote migrates down the Fallopian tube, within 24-36 hrs the single cell divides into 2, at roughly 24 hr periods dividing into 4 then 8 then 16 cells. After 3 days ready to enter the uterus, after 4^th day cells beginning to carry out specific functions, outer layer will become the nutrition support,  inner group that will become the embryo. The 16 cells are now called a blastocyst. Blastocyst secretes hormones to inhibit menstruation or the shedding of the uterine lining and by 10^th-14^th day implantation is complete. It is one of these hormones in the urine that serves as a marker of pregnancy tests.

The second stage of the prenatal period begins, the embryonic stage from implantation of the blastocyst to 8 wks after conception involves rapid differentiation of cells to form organs and systems of the body. About the 15^th day a small group of cells will begin formation of the spinal cord, nerves and eventually the brain and by the second month developing100,000 neurons every minute. Embryo is still less than 1 ½ inches and ½ an ounce yet nearly all organs are established. At 6 wks the nervous system begins to function and irregular and faint brain wave activiy is noted as well as reflex movements. The emergence of bone tissue at 8 wks from coneption signals the 3^rd stage of the prenatal period.

The third stage, the fetal period, 8 wks from conception to birth. Continue differentiation of the organs, growing in size, reflexive movement more pronounced i.e. open and close lips, wrinkle forehead, raise and lower eye brows, sucking and basic breathing and swallowing actions. Final months, brain growing rapidly, different stages of sleep and wakefulness, can experience through the senses and viability, the ability to survive outside the womb dramatically improves over the last 3 months.

What can infl the embryo during the prenatal period? The embryo is sustained by the placenta and umbilical cord which transport oxygen and nutrient and waste products. The embryo is sensitive to teratogens or environmental agents that can cause disruption in normal development, especially at critical or sensitive periods. These incl alcohol, which readily crosses the placenta and is the single most frequent cause of mental retardation in industrialized countries like ours, cigarette smoking which can cause spontaneous abortions, stillbirths and often lowers baby’s birth wt which has risk factors, prescription and over the counter drugs, caffeine, illegal drugs, again transferred through placenta and later breast milk, see withdrawal symptoms in newborns mother used heroin or morphine. Teratogens also incl certain diseases such as toxoplasmosis a parasite humans may get from contact with cats or raw meat, HIV, sexually transmitted diseases such as gonorrhea, syphilis. Also can incl environmental hazards such as radiation which can cause spontaneous abortion, skeletal defects, cancer or chemicals such as lead mercury, PCBs

Other factors affecting prenatal dev include

Woman’s age at conception, older women more likely child with Down syndrome, also increase premature birth or infant mortality. Teenage mother more likely deliver unhealthy baby, likely because less prenatal care. Nutrition also important, without good nutrition, premature birth, death, nervous sytem defects if early in preg and less fetal growth and small birth wt later in preg. Not just need calories but also protein, vitamins, nutrients. High levels of stress also linked to complications during preg and birth, anxiety seems to lengthen labor and incr need for anesthesia during delivery

Assessing newborns

Typically weigh 5 ½ to 10 lbs measure 18-22 inches in length. Routinely administerd the Apgar Scale at 1 and 5 minutes after birth measures 5 vital signs, hrt rate, respiratory effort, muscle tone, reflex responsiveness and color. Several days after birth might be administered the Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale(NBAS) dev by Brazelton evaluates ability to interact, respond to object, reflex motor capacity and ability to control behavioral state. Both allow for early intervention if needed.

CHAPTER 5 MOTOR SKILL AND PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

The developing brain

5 months after conception 4% , at birth 25% , age 4 yrs 80% of its adult wt. At birth the brainstem and midbrain involved in basic reflexes and sensory processing and essential biological functioning like breathing and digestion are fairly well established. The frontal lobe, the area most directly involved in higher level cognition tends to develop last. Neural development includes proliferation or an increase in number of neurons (cells that carry electrochemical messages in the brain), migration or movement to different parts of the brain and differentiation or the increase in size, complexity and functioning. Neurons are also sheathed in a fatty material, myelin, which helps speed the neural impulses. Neurons are helped by glial cells that provide material to create myelin, nourish neurons and provide a framework for neural migration.

The developing brain has substantial plasticity, or the ability (within limits) for different regions of the brain to take on specialized requirements i.e. be utilized for sensory, linguistic or info processing. If infants or children suffer brain damage can often recovery in ways that the adult brain cannot. This includes plasticity related to lateralization or the process in which one hemisphere becomes dominate for specific abilities i.e. language function, handedness. Though note that at birth some brain asymmetry is already noted, head orientation, better able to identify changes in speech sounds in r ear.

First actions with newborns are reflexes, eat, sleep, cry, involuntary reactions to senses and stimulations. The reflexes will give way to voluntary movements. Reflexes pg 156. Then rhythmical stereotypes, repeated sequences of movement such as kicking, arm waving, swaying, bouncing, exercise muscles, bones and joints, will be integrated into purposeful goal directed actions as gain control. . There is a chronological sequence to motor skill dev, p 161, crawl, creep, cruise, walk with help, stand alone, walk alone, up steps, runs, kicks ball, jumps, etc.

Also see chronology to manual or hand control, moving hand to mouth, reaching with fist, reach and grasp, both hands. Postural control, head upright 2mn, upright sitting, standing, standing without assistance.  Large motor development in play, pulling, pushing, stacking, nesting, riding. Then fine motor, color, draw, cut, sculpt. Also involves neural control and attention span, organization and planning. Lack of opportunity to engage in physcial activity can seriously impede ability to reach developmental milestones. Video

Cont to grow in wt and ht. If growth rate of first 6 mnths were sustained average 10 y-o would be 100 feet tall. Nearly double their wt in 5-6 month would weigh about 240,000 tons if cont at that rate. Organs substantial gain during first two years than slower, stable incr through childhood, rapid again in adolescence. Growth is cephalocaudal (head matures more quickly than other areas) and proximodistal ( regions near the trunk grow earlier than at periphery). Gain control of arms and legs before fingers and toes. Indiv dif espec evident during adolescent yrs, enormous variation in timing, speed, duration of growth spurt. Between 10-14 girls, 12-16 boys.

Growth is infl by

1.genetic factors, i.e. late maturing if parent late maturing, similar ht or body type

2. neural control – see in catch up growth if disrupted by illness/nutrition dif and lagging down growth as resp to congential or hormonal disorder

3.hormones – chemicals produced by glands secreted into bloodstream and infl development 

4.nutrition and health, can fail to grow if lack of calories or protein, nutrients or vitamins p 171 bloated distended stomach of malnutrition either lack of protein or toxins. Also can see cognitive deficits, less motiv/curiosity, dif engage or respond. Iron deficient anemia lower performance on I.Q. tests.

5. social emotional factors, institutionalized children lack of warm consistent care can have failure to thrive syndrome

6. secular or societal trends ex better medical care, child labor laws, incr nutrition, children today grow faster, taller than previous generations

Ht and wt can impact social emotional dev i.e. reactions to children who are short or tall, obese – some cultures show prosperity, rich so positive connotation. Genetic or learned behavior, passive link. Incr obesity in U.S., correlated with more time T.V.   Flip side eating disorders

Major changes seen again in puberty, developmental period changes transform person from immature individual to one capable of reproduction, brain triggers hormone changes, primary sexual organs become larger and functional, see secondary sexual characteristics mature i.e. facial hair males, breast dev females, menarch or first menstrual period in females and spermarche first ejaculation of sperm in males. Secular trends show earlier maturation, typical century ago reached adult ht age 23 now age 17, menarche also much earlier. Even family relationships can impact development, stress can affect hormonal balances and accelerate female development. 

What factors play a role in whether become sexually active now that physiology, body of an adult?  P 183 close responsive supportive parents, closer supervision/monitoring teens sexually abstinent until older, greater poverty, higher crime, lower education and income, single parent or abusive family enviro earlier onset sexual activity, (casual or correlation)

CHAPTER 6 LEARNING AND PERCEPTION

Even newborns exhibit learning responses. See in habituation which is a gradual decline in intensity, frequency or duration of a response to a repeated occurrence of a stimulus and in imitation such as mouth opening, sticking out tongue, and facial expressions.

Also see in learning in classical conditioning experiments, even within hrs of birth if pair delivery of a sugar solution UCS which stimulates sucking UCR to forehead stroking CS to elicite sucking CR. Or pairing the nipple UCS which stimulates sucking UCR to a distinctive odor CS and get sucking response CR.

And learning in operant conditioning behaviors incr if followed by reward (positive reinforcement) or removal of aversive event (negative reinforcement) and decr if followed by loss of reward or loss of reward (negative punishment) or an aversive outcome (positive punishment). Babies for ex will modify frequency or rate of sucking, smiling, vocalizing to see and hear things (positive reinforcement)

Classical and Operant conditioning explain why children learn certain skills, repeated associations of positive outcomes or negative outcomes. Also learn through imitation. Newborns and young infants imitate a variety of responses incl sticking out their tongue, mouth opening, facial expressions. Even deferred imitation (imitate a model’s behavior that was observed at earlier time) as young as 6 months ex remove mitten from a puppet and try to put it back on.

Also implicit learning, or unintentional learning, acquire the knowledge incidentally. Circle experiment. May impact language or perceptual learning

Learning depends upon basic processes such as sensation and perception. Sensation refers to basic info in the world that is processed by our senses or sensory receptors. Infants for ex focus on contours, black and white contrasts, intensity of sound. Perception refers to the process of organizing and interpreting sensory info. i.e. recog mother’s face or a lullaby. It is a constructive process, imposing order on the multisensory external world. The newborn comes into the world equipped to respond to stimuli and patterns, ready to organize and process information.

One of the ways researched know babies see, hear or smell (can’t tell us in words) is through attention, alertness or arousal to stimuli. Ex 1-6m olds attend longer to disks decorated with bull’s eye, stripes, faces than solid colors. impacts dev toys P 199 exp on where 1-2m olds look on a face, move from external regions to inner features. And as noted habituation and operant conditioning to assess sensory perception. Exp Special nipple records rate of sucking, a sound, incr sucking, but after hearing repeatedly decr sucking, new sound incr sucking. Heart rate, brain activity can also show response to sensory changes.

The senses of newborns quickly dev. Ex visual accommodation, the ability to focus on objects at different distances is at nearly adult like levels by 3 months of age. But ways dif from older children and adults i.e. pupillary reflex, controlling the amount of light that enters the eye is sluggish so dif for infant to see details. Also smooth visual pursuit, maintaining fixation of a moving target only for brief periods as infants by 6-8mnths like adult. Visual acuity, (fixate on distance) eye chart twenty feet,  again poor in infants but improves rapidly during first 6 months. Very young infants do not see colors but quickly dev. First see externality effect, focus on outer contours, external features, but soon scan internal characteristics as well. And very early on assign importance to faces, more interest than other equally complex arrays, within days discriminating Mother’s face from others based on outer elements but by 6 months, discriminate mother’s face from strangers face on internal elements.

Not just vision but kinetic or body cues as well. Classic study visual cliff, sheet of glass pattern close under on one side, farther down on other, babies easily coaxed to crawl over shallow side but less likely over the deep side, kinetic clues of head and body movements signaled depth suggesting depth perception Younger babies placed on deep side face down, become quieter, show interest not yet associated depth with anxiety or fear. Understanding needs to be relearned at dev stages i.e. reaching, crawling, walking. For ex may not reach across a gap that is too wide to avoid falling but might crawl across the gap.

Know also fetus can hear in the womb, see changes in hrt rate, brain waves and activity level prefer certain sounds, voice of mother over stranger, patterns of sounds like story book reading. Can shortly after birth localize sound, determine where the sound is coming from, 2-3 months recog change in tempo and before 6 months of age can distinguish all the important sounds in any of the hundreds of languages spoken around the world, suggesting may be born with innate capacity to detect and process language.

Smell differences, from facial expressions, changes in respiration and brain activity and head turning indicate newborns can identify odors. Recognize caregivers by smell.  Research used breast pad worn by mother to new pad or to unfamiliar mother.

Taste receptors for sweet, sour, salty and bitter located on tongue develop before birth. And dif tastes, result in different facial expressions, sweet to smile, sour to lip pursing, bitter to mouth opening.

Temperature and touch. Experience discomfort i.e. too hot (don’t regulate body temperature well) and pain (see facial expression or crying, etc) consider medication for procedures or also soothed by sucrose or nonnutritive sucking and music.

Still question as to whether sensory input is unimodal (one at a time) or intermodal (coordinate sensory info from dif senses). Exp p220 4 months match wet sponges sound and film vs blocks clapped sound and film and 6 months match male or female voice to same sex face. Another exp that suggests intermodal 6 months explore obj with hands only, recog by sight

Experience and inborn sensory capacity. Recog new technology to assist infants with sensory disabilities. Blind children can perceive the existence of distant objects by auditory cues as they move about. Now fitting blind infants with sonar devices to help hear echoes to signal objects.

Recog limitations as well. Before age 5 yrs difficulty seeing alternative interpretations even when directly shown. P 223

CHAPTER 7 LANGUAGE

Language dev begins with phonology, fundamental sounds units and combinations of units used in language. Infants as young as 1 month can discriminate between different phonemes, at 2 months of age add vowel sounds and by 6 – 10 months show a decline in ability to distinguish basic sounds that do not appear in their native language. Critical period? Infants also show sensitivity to prosody, patterns of intonation, stress and rhythm of speech. At birth cries, grunts, sigh, clicks but soon 6-8 wks cooing, vowel like utterances sometimes accompanied by consonants, next is babbling, consonant vowel combinations like ba, or da, at 7 months, canonical babbling in which infant repeats well formed syllables such as baba dada. Speech is linked to physiological changes in the vocal apparatus and central nervous system. All cultures and deaf children vocalize with coos and babbles so appears to be biological. At around 1 yr words and vocabulary expands rapidly.

In first yr of life also communicate with gestures protodeclarative communication which calls attention to something and protoimperative communication which is a command or request. Gestures appear just before words showing a cognitive advance understanding communication.

Also recog receptive language, what comprehend is greater than productive language, what can say.

From 1 yr to 20 months usually speak one word at a time, label objects people or events, nominals that are important in their life. From 18 months on vocabulary spurt, period of rapid word acquisition, maybe 20 new words a week, may have errors along the way overextension in which apply label too broadly or underextension, too narrowly By time enter school 14, 000 words, by age 10 40,000 words, use fast mapping in which derive meaning of word from context (use as adults too) and recog that new words likely label unfamiliar objects mutual exclusivity bias. Innate or interpreting cues in environment social-pragmatic approach.

Around 24 months 2 word combinations with loose grammatical structure described as telegraphic speech ex p 243and understanding past present and future tense though cannot speak it.  2 ½  yrs more words strung together and adjectives, pronouns, s ed and ing, adding questions and learning grammar, the rules of language and pragmatics, the rules of using language effectively, cultural rules recognizing who speaking to i.e. “gimme that” to friend or “please may I” to teacher , gaining awareness of others, referential communication in which has to describe something to listener. Also see use of humor, substituting words on purpose or changing words evidencing metalinguistic awareness or ability to see language as a communication tool and self as communicator.

So language acquisition, how we learn language, occurs in an orderly fashion. It is learned rapidly and not just imitation but generative, children use unique expressions of their own. Several theories of language dev

1.     biological theory. Neuropsychological studies reveal certain portions of the brain involved in language process. Broca’s area, located in the left frntal region near the motor cortex controls expressive ability, speaking and Wernicke’s area, temporal region of the left hemisphere close to auditory processing centers controls language comprehension, understanding. Also biological as language milestones follow a predictable sequence regardless of culture or language and critical periods for the acquisition of language, if not learned early very difficult to learn and shows different brain pattern if learn at older age

2.     linguistic theory - Chomsky – children possess an innate system of language, universal grammar that predisposes them to notice properties of language and learn language. As exposed to a specific language a process called parameter setting takes place and the child distinguishes the grammar of their specific language, learning and applying rules as they go along.

3.     learning and cognition theory - Skinner and other behaviorists see language as a behavior like any other, shaped by selective reinforcement and imitation. Also cognitive or thinking strategies seem to predict language, selective learning, learn what interests them, other cognitive skills like memory also impact language. Actions and thinking combine to move toward language

4.     social interaction theory. Language develops out of the desire to communicate with others, parental speech offers scaffolding, a framework from which to learn receptive and productive language skills. Look at motherese/parentese that simple, repetitive, high pitched speech of caregiver to child and turn taking, alternative vocalizations of parent, child, parent, child and turnabouts, conversation requests for response from child and recast, repetition of child’s statement in grammatically correct fashion and expansion, building upon the child’s statement. Book reading particularly good as context for teaching language p 261 how to

Does language shape thinking or thinking shape language? Research suggests bidirectional influence each other. Two behaviors that suggest bidirectional 1. children can memorize words, increase language skills more effectively or increase production if sort words into categories, if they use the connections, meaning of words. 2. bilingual children are more selectively attentive, flexible and analyze info more effectively when faced with thinking problems than unilingual. ? of bilingual ed p 264

Also address ways of teaching children who have difficulty learning speech. P 234 just like physical therapy for muscular deficits use what researchers have learned about language development, slow it down and repetitive exercises. 

Language also plays important role in self regulation .Children exhibit private speech or speech-for-self which seems to guide them through activities, eventually becomes inner speech use when facing difficult tasks, similar to adults. Language helps regulate behavior as seen in decrease in body movements, increase attention as move from overt to private speech

CHAPTER 8 COGNITION

Cognition incl proc of thinking and mental activity such as attention, memory and problem solving. Two most important theoretical positions are those of Piaget and Vygotsky

Piaget proposed that children played an active role in constructing their knowledge of the world. As noted in Chpt 1 children develop schemes or structures and assimilate info into the scheme, accommodate info if it does not fit to maintain equilibrium. Piaget saw this process cont through 4 distinct stages of development. The stages are in an invariable sequence, though some children move through stages more quickly than others depending on maturity and the learning environment.

1.     Sensorimotor Stage (birth- 2yrs)  infant gets info from senses, sucking, crawling, touching. Behavior is first reflexive, not deliberate or planned but will become increasing goal oriented or develop means-ends behavior, as goes through the 6 substages p. 273. Infant will recognition that repetition of behavior produces the same results to body, then external world and then will move toward combining actions to achieve a goal, experimenting to see if works similarly with other objects. In this stage the infant gradually develops an understanding of separation of self and the environment and then to object permanence, the realization that objects exist even when not in view.

2.     Preoperational Stage (2-7yrs)  Key function of this stage is to develop semiotic (or symbolic) function or the ability to use a symbol, object or word to stand for something else, allows for language development, thinking about past and future, imaginary play. At this stage child is egocentric, sees the world only from his/her perspective, and does not exhibit flexibility or logical thinking. In research such as tasks of conservation in which children judge equivalence exhibits centration, only able to focus on one aspect of problem. At this stages lacks reversibility and focus is on states not events, does not see connected events as related.

3.     Concrete Operational stage (7-11yrs) Now able to do the conservation tasks, perform mental operations to see from other points of view, look at events not just the state, use methods to figure out solutions

4.     Formal Operational Stage (11 yrs and up) as reaches adolescence able to think logically and abstractly, reason hypothetically meaning s/he can generate a number of solutions. Also think about society and often are idealistic as sees possibilities not just realities for justice, love, the world.

With every stage child builds upon what knows, so in education important to understand developmental stages but also individual’s knowledge base, cognitive advances are most optimally made when new material is only slightly diffeent from what the child already knows. Also recognize that development is a result of active participation by children, needs to manipulate objects not just sit and listen.

Piaget’s theory offered a platform from which to understand child develop and most importantly showed that can learn what we need about child development by observing the child/children. Later research has added that the theory may have underestimated infants and young children’s ability. For ex object permanence, even 8-9 month olds will search for covered object and see variability in conservation tasks with different materials. Another criticism if development due to maturation why don’t all children or adults reach the last stage of formal operations.

Fischer Skill theory added to Piaget that individuals skills may develop more rapidly in some domains depending on experience. Research in this area suggests also may be more continuity than suggested, stages are not so clearly all that is going on. Case’s theory development tied to nervous system changes especially myelinization of cortex.

Concept development

Violation of expectation experiments suggest that young infants possess innate knowledge concerning fundamental properties of objects such as solidity, location. Others suggest infant detecting perceptual differences not fundamentals.

The A-not-B error hide object, infant finds it, move to another place, infant still looks in first hiding place. Difficulty with object concept? Memory? failure to inhibit motor responses? Field still has a lot to learn

Classification  by 1^st yr group similar objects. Basic level – look alike or used in similar ways (chairs). By 2^nd yr able to match thematic relations or taxonomically like fruit, kitchen things. As older can categorize at Superordinate level broader more general concepts that do not share similar attributes (furniture, clothing) later in development. Seem to be natural domains or some categories that acquire easily and how classify also influenced by experience and culture. Egg go with toast or a chicken. Natural domains, some concepts or categores are easier to acquire/learn, biologically programmed? These are called natural domains i.e. animate versus inanimate,

Numerical concepts – Piaget thought not until about age 7 yrs using one to one correspondence testing. Not have cardinality – last number count is how many in the group or ordinality, number count is the item’s order in a set. Does appear younger children have some concept of smaller and larger, more or less and even infants some sensitivity to amount of items so possible another innate core knowledge. Intuitive concepts of addition, subtraction, fractions, evidenced by pizza and pizza eaters. Dif with math because not involved actively? Also how teach ex p 295 Asian vs Amercian children, first to 10 than add the rest, language does it this way, ten one is 11 ten two is 12

Spatial relationships  - develop a mental picture or map of home first from an egocentric frame of reference, dropped it to my left if turn around keep looking to the left, then by landmarks, distinctive cues learn environment, by age 4 able to use simple maps with clear representations of objects in a room and from child’s point of view. And as older child walk to school, friends house etc.

First few years do not realize others see situations differently, then gradually move from egocentrism to perspective taking , ability to understand how someone else sees situation, develop understanding as well of other’s psychological states what thinks, feels. Piaget’s study p 298.

Many of our social behaviors rest on being able to understand other’s perspectives, beliefs, moods. How does a child develop a theory of mind or awareness of mental states ones own and other’s? Piaget didn’t think this happened until 8 or 9 yrs but actually considerably earlier.

False beliefs tasks beginnings of this understanding p 299

Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of cognitive development. Importance of understanding cultures impact on thinking, problem solving, attention. Children learn informally and formally from parents, peers, teachers, neighbors. As learn it from external sources internalize learning.

scaffolding  - temporary aid provided by a person to support, encourage learning, provide knowledge, skills that are gradually transferred to the learner.

zone of proximal development  disparity between what children are able to do without assistance and accomplish with assistance, most effective assistance is that just slightly beyond or ahead of current ability.

Guided participation offer by supporting child’s observations and efforts, or thinking out loud with child)

Intersubjectivity mutual attention and shared communication between child and expert, takes place in social context, observes, interacts, internalizes social exchanges. Peek a boo first shared activities to helping prepare a family meal as older, family business.

Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s findings can infl education, teaching style. Disc

Autism p 300 new theory that autistic children lack the natural “theory of mind” developed in preschool, do not understand own or other’s mind or mental state

CHAPTER 9 COGNITION: INFORMATION PROCESSING

Information processing theory of cognition development (probably should have been in last chapter) suggests that human thinking is best understood as an information management system with limited space and resources. Many of these theories are multistore models, involving a sequence of structures through which information is processed. Chart p 312, stimuli to sensory register to short term or working memory where evaluated by executive processes for a response i.e. output or long term memory. Limited resource model, there is a limited amount of energy within the cognitive system to processed and retain information. Increased development reflects increased efficiency of this system rather than increased size of structures as in multistore models.

Rest of chapter focuses on the development of specific cognitive abilities, attention, memory, problem solving.

Attention is a process that allows the person to focus on a selected aspect of the environment, first step in learning or problem solving. If info does not enter the system or only partially enters few opportunities for learning. As child develops see increase in sustained attention, 1 year old 3.33 seconds, 2 yr 5.36 sec, 3 ½ yr 8 seconds . At 3 ½ months shift in attention due to reflexes but by 5 months able to deploy attention, can deliberate and plan the focus of attention. As the central nervous system matures and the child becomes interested in more complex stimuli able to ignore information that is irrelevant.

This is likely part of the problem in ADHD, difficulty being selective, responding to, and trying to incorporate too much information. Likely neurological/biological differences in the brain that interfere with regulating attention and motor activity. P316 last paragraph

Memory, begins with the sensory register, sensory image that closely resembles the initial input is held in memory for very brief periods of time (fractions of a second). Moves to short term or working memory which holds information for no more than a couple minutes, can hold there with rehearsal and info either forgotten or moved to long term memory where info is held permanently. Different kinds of long term memory. Episodic memory is for events that took place at a specific time and place ( an episode like a 1^st birthday party). Semantic memory is general facts or concepts (4 seasons of the year). Recognition memory recognize what have learned before (multiple choice test) and Recall memory reproduce without a cue like recognition (fill in the blank question on exam).

Many studies of recognition and recall memory have been conducted with infants and children. Use habituation with paired comparison procedures that pair an old and new stimulus. Infant’s show more interest in a novel stimuli. In Fagan’s research he presented a human face or geometric figure for a period of time and then presented it with a new stimuli and the infant looked longer at the new stimuli suggesting remembered the old stimuli.

Rovee-Collier used a operant conditioning technique. Infant learns to kick foot to move mobile, remove the mobile from the crib for 2 wks then back in, more kicking than to a new mobile, remembered. By presenting dif colored/designed mobiles can begin to understand how encoding information into memory.

Research also showed that sometimes needed a memory boost within a certain amount of time, what is called a time window, to remember. Even newborns seem to have recognition memory. Infants made the foot kick connection forgot at 8 days but if memory boost at 3 days memory 8 days later.

Recall memory-study memory span, # of items that can be recalled, dependent on memory strategies (disc next) and processing speed (how quickly carry out memory task). Looking at elicited imitation, repeating demonstration of actions when offered materials at later time found even after seen once and even with preverbal children. (Bauer “making a gong”) Free recall tasks, given list of words or objects to repeat later, remember more from beginning(primacy effect) and end of the list (recency effect).

Memory strategies incl rehearsal -simply repeating either aloud or to self, organization - reorder items on basis of category or concepts, elaboration - link items together, mneumonics – tricks. These help encoding or getting information into the memory stores so as can better retrieve information or get it out.

Metamemory is the understanding that memory is a process. As realize this increased efficiency and control over memory processes, incr use of strategies to remember. Recog need to use cognitive inhibition, only remember what is important. Young children try to store it all, verbatim, but this is easily disrupted. As older use fuzzy trace theory, gist of the information, easier to retain. Memory ability also depends on domain-specific knowledge, information of a specific content area, memory can be better for child than adult if greater knowledge of the information being remembered. And helps if have a script, an organized scheme of knowledge that is applicable to the info being learned. If same process every day, comes home from school on the bus, has a snack, watches T.V. etc easily to remember.

Autobiographical memory, memory for specific events in one’s life. First 2-3 yrs usually no memories, infantile amnesia, maybe because no sense of self, or memory’s remembered differently as preverbal, or not understand ideas of stories, or maybe do not have metamemory so can’t answer do you remember questions.

As memory different in children there is a controversy re eyewitness testimony with children. Know that children can recall distinct events but susceptible to leading questions, will misreport the event, also often look to see if answering as adult wants, if correct and will alter memory to conform. Repeated questions often lead to false memories as child interprets repeated questions as indicating their first answers were incorrect. And as with adults over time memory for specific event declines.

Development of problem solving skills, Piaget’s means – ends behavior in sensorimotor stage suggests the beginnings of problem solving. Piaget thought there was a qualitative change in thinking in the Formal Operations stage that allowed for problem solving. The information processing theorists emphasize growth in attention, memory and other cognitive skills that result in improvements in prob solving.

Components of problem solving include representational insight, the child’s understanding that symbols or models stand for real life events. Study noted last class, small toy hidden in dollhouse, real toy in corresponding room, age 2 find it 20% of the time age 3 70%. Also planning, deciding on the steps to take  to get to the goal and flexibility so can search for alternatives if first plan fails. Draw on memory of past strategies. Can help children learn if teach with analogical transfer.  It involves higher order thinking, the ability to apply what learn in one situation to other similar situations. Researchers have found that if prompted to see similarities do better on problem solving than control group that was no instructed to see similarities in problems. This can be applied to education, p. 338 teach for transfer, using multiple settings, organize info connected to info already have (Vygotsky’s ideas), help see commonalities between problems.

Can also train children for scientific thinking, formulating a hypothesis, designing experiments to control variables. As with memory, problem solving improves with metacognition, awareness and knowledge of the thinking processes. 

CHAPTER 10 INTELLIGENCE

What is intelligence? Merriam Webster dictionary “the ability to learn or understand or to deal with new or trying situations to reason… apply knowledge to manipulate one's environment or to think abstractly as measured by objective criteria”

Book’s glossary does not give a definition but lists Intelligence Quotient (IQ) as the numerical score received on an intelligence test. Chart p 348 varies age to age how assess intelligence.

So not one unique ability, may be exhibited in different ways. The study of intelligence has rested on psychometric tradition, quantifying individual differences with test scores that establish rank order of abilities. Started with Sir Francis Galton who looked at what he believed were innate individual differences in discriminating between physical stimuli such as tones of different pitch. Cattell expanded on these ideas adding more physical stimuli tests and tests of motor actions. He coined the term mental test. First formal I.Q. test was developed by Binet and Simon in response to the minister of public instruction in Paris’ hope to identify children with lower mental abilities who could not profit from the educational system. They assessed children’s ability to reason verbally, solve simple problems and think logically.

Spearman presented a two factor theory that intelligence consisted of a general intelligence factor or “mental energy” (g) and specific knowledge and ability for certain tasks (s).

Thurstone in contrast thought intelligence was composed of seven distinct fundamental capabilities 1. visual comprehension 2.word fluency 3. number facility 4. spatial visualization 5. memory 6. reasoning and 7. perceptual speed and no general factor “g” .

Cattell and Horn thought there were two types of intelligence 1. Fluid intelligence was biologically based abilities and 2. Crystallized intelligence included skills acquired through living in a specific culture.

Information Processing suggested that rather than looking for specific structures look at the developmental level of each of the abilities needed to accomplish tasks i.e. memory, speed of processing the information, how large a foundation of information the individual possessed, look at metacognitive skills.

Sternberg presented a triarchic theory of intelligence with 3 subtheories or 3 components 1. contextual - the ability to adapt to the environment  

2. componential - the ability to employ fundamental information processing skills and 3. two facet – first facet is the ability to deal with novelty and the second facet is the ability to automatize processing (read words not letter sounds) . So includes practical ability, analytical ability, and creative ability.

Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences. For each of the following skills can find people who excel or show genius as well as others who show a loss or deficit due to damage to particular parts of the brain. Believed certain intelligence was inborn but that experiences were very important. Eight areas he identified  on p 354  were  Linguistic musical, logico-mathematical, spatial, bodily kinesthetic, intrapersonal, interpersonal, naturalistic.

Measuring intelligence as noted above sometimes equate intelligence with I.Q. score which refers only to the score a person achieves on a standardized test. Assume a normal distribution with the majority falling in the middle and fewer at the upper and lower extremes. 90-109 average range. I.Q. of 130 and over thought of as gifted  . Terman longitudinal study of more than 1,000 children with I.Q. of 140 or above from early adolescence to adulthood, on average taller, physically health, positions of leadership, most professional occupations, highly productive, good relationships, good self concepts, well adjusted.

I.Q. of 70 and under often classified as mentally retarded. Mental retardation is defined as limitations in intellectual and adaptive functioning (ability to perform everyday life skills). Four levels from mild (may be able to live independently) to profoundly retarded (require special assistance throughout life in almost every aspect of functioning). May be due to organic reasons (clear biological cause) or nonorganic/familial (impoverished, unstimulating environment) or combination of both.

Standardized Tests designed by psychometricians, psychologists who specialize in construction and interpretation of tests. In developing administer to a large sample of individuals to assess reliability and validity.

Most widely used infant scale is the Bayley Scales of Infant Development yields a developmental index: consists of two parts, Mental Scale which assesses sensory and perceptual skills, memory, learning, object concept and linguistics and Motor Scale which assesses large and fine motor control and coordination of the body.

Most widely used scales for children incl the Stanford Binet Intelligence Scales and the Weschler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence and the Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children. Stanford Binet built upon Binet’s first I.Q. test. Terman (of the gifted longitudinal study) at Stanford University translated, modified and standardized the test and incorporated Stern’s equation of Intelligence Quotient (I.Q.) which is the mental age (or test result / chronological age x 100. So if a 10 year old received a score of 120 the I.Q.would be 120/100 x 100 = I.Q. of 120 if s/he had a score of 80 it would be 80/100 x 100 = I.Q. of 80. Developed for ages 2yrs through adulthood

The Wechsler Scales are for 2 ½ yrs through adulthood with 3 different versions the two scales noted above and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale.

The Stanford Binet and Wechsler have strict instructions. Another test, the K-ABC, Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children is more flexible allowing for alternative wording, gestures and languages. Assess problem solving skills through 1. Sequential Processing Scale (step by step) 2. Simultaneous Processing Scale (integration and organization of information)  and a Mental Processing Composite (combining 1 & 2) rather than knowledge content

Research has shown overall good correlations between I.Q. scores obtained during early school years and adulthood. However some scores have seen significant changes, theory that environmental risk factors impact, i.e. absence of father from household, unemployment of parent, physical illness of family member, overly restrictive or permissive parenting discipline style. In interpreting scores also important to identify if factors other than intelligence that may have affected scores i.e. attention, motivation, anxiety. Less correlation between infant scores and I.Q. scores. Likely evaluating different processes.

I.Q. scores do a good job of identifying future success or difficulty in school. High correlation between I.Q. and educational achievement, especially verbal skills such as reading. And the child’s pattern of strengths and weaknesses on the testing can suggest ways to individualize educational programming for specific skills or needs. But I.Q. can not predict life success, satisfaction, money earn. Overachiever, underachiever, other factors. So important how interpret and use results.

Identical twins reared apart have a higher correlation for I.Q. than fraternal twins or non twin siblings reared in the same environment and appear to be strong correlations between I.Q. of adopted children with biological parents. This suggest hereditary factor in intelligence. Also know though that nutrition, early intervention, access to schooling/technology, etc also an impact.

Arthur Jensen in 1969 published a paper suggesting the racial differences in I.Q. were due to heritability and African Americans were less intelligent as a group than Caucasians. Very controversial as critics noted did not take into account socioeconomic standing, environment grew up in. And studies such as the cross-fostering study by Scarr and Weinberg in which children are raised in markedly different environments, show benefits of educational opportunities.

Not only environmental or nurture issues but also may be test bias, the content of the test may be more familiar to children of certain social or cultural backgrounds than others and may not be culturally fair. Certain cultures may prepare children differently to respond to adult questions or for testing. May be a stereotype threat, the negative psychological impact of a stereotype, research p 369

As early environment seems to impact later intellectual development have been projects to understand the factors that make a difference. Home Observation Measurement of the Environment Inventory (HOME Inventory) study by Caldwell in the 1970s, in which researchers collected data through interviews and direct observation suggested key features of home environment that correlated to I.Q., particularly parent emotional and verbal responsiveness to the child and availability of appropriate play material and parental involvement. Does not mean causation, maybe inherent differences in these children encouraged more parental involvement etc.

Important processes occur between children and parents in early life that have lifelong implications. Also outside the home

Do know that early experiences are crucial to early brain development and influenced by environmental conditions. Project Head Start initiated in the 1960s as preschool enrichment programs for underprivileged children included nutrition, medical and educational support and made a significant difference. Recog need to cont with school age children as well to maintain levels.

CHAPTER 11 EMOTION

Emotions are complex behaviors produced in response to internal or external events.

3 components

1. physiological component involving the autonomic nervous system, see a change in heart rate, breathing, EEG or brain patterns (sympathetic nervous system, parasympathetic nervous system)

2. expressive component usually a facial display, eyes, brows, mouth change – one way assess in infants but have to be cautious in interpretation

3. experiential component, subjective feelings or judgments of having an emotion.

Emotions can impact motivation, cognition, attention, interactions. (On a simple level, if do well on a task feel pleasure, pay more attention, continue what doing. If trying hard and it won’t work become angry, discouraged move away task.)

Research uses changes in physiological functions such as heart rate, brain activity, analyzing tiny muscle movements of brow, eye, mouth regions, as well as self report in which label, match or produce emotional expressions of self or other.

Different theories of emotional development

          Biologically based explanation – Ekman and Izard, studied facial expression across cultures, concluded there are universal facial expressions interpreted in similar ways across culture, able to identify faces of happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise and disgust. Also see emotional expressions in infants without learning, i.e. disgust is an automatic product of sensory feedback.

          Cognitive-Socialization explanation – Lew and Michalson, the environmental event does not directly produce an emotion rather a person uses cognitive processes as mediators to assess the event, process how it compares with past events and social rules and then knows how to respond. Learn to interpret certain events, label emotions and inhibit certain emotions (through socialization). barking dog example

          Social context - Campos and Saarni Emotions are intertwined with the social environment, not look at positive (joy) or negative (anger) tone of an emotion but rather emphasize emotions as processes of social interaction, goal directed. (Bullying)

Early Development and emotions. Infants only a few days old are capable of the basic (or primary) emotions, producing facial expressions of interest, distress, joy, sadness, anger surprise and (by 7 months) fear. See changes as develops for ex, smiles first seen during REM sleep (not gas), then when awake in resp to familiar voices, sounds, sweet tastes, food smells. Also the form of the smile actually changes, more evident as mouth more open, cheek and eye muscles more involved.

By 3 months increase in frequency and size of smile, when looking at smiling mother “social smile”. Moves from reflex beh to voluntary response as cerebral cortex matures. Crying also see changes. Newborn cry if hungry, cold, wet, pain, disturbed out of sleep. Promotes contact with caregiver and if prompt response with time cry less and less. By 2 months no longer purely physiological, able to produce a social smile and respond differently if mothers respond to the smile with their own smile or if do not respond in suit or cry more if parent no longer responsive not just physiological needs.

3 day olds can imitate facial expressions of happiness, surprise and sadness and in the later half of the first year social referencing, interpreting facial expressions for cues regarding the environment. Visual Cliff experiment.

Interactive synchrony, reciprocal mutual engaging cycles of caregiver – child. Caregivers responding to infants signals i.e. “social smile” or a cry and infants also responding to caregiver, reading face for cues, mimicking caregiver’s facial expression and mood. Episodes of asynchrony, in which child and parent emotion does not match appear to give infants opportunity to learn rules of interaction, infants behavior frequently alters parents behaviors (baby happy, parent sad, baby becomes unhappy and fussy so parent modifies mood to help infant). However, also appears to happen in reverse, parent sad, angry, infant enters sad, angry mood. Can influence attachment (emotional bond) which impacts social and cognitive development later on.

By the 2^nd year more complex emotions develop, self conscious emotion such as shame, embarrassment, guilt and envy, that require knowledge about the self in relationship to others. (lowers head, collapses body, odd smile) Language development seems to help children better understand cause and consequences of emotions, learn the cultural guidelines, when, how, to what degree express emotions or “display rules” (might fake an emotion as well as learn when not to express an emotion). If parents able to help children by correctly labeling emotions rather than discounting feelings can lead to increase social competency and to regulating emotional states.

With infants, caregivers help regulate emotional states by responding to needs, carrying, rocking and speaking softly or distracting. Young babies will try to self regulate with thumb or pacifier sucking, looking away if situation is too arousing, or falling asleep. For 2-3 yr olds language allows ability to use words instead of behavior to project emotions so see fewer tantrums. Also frontal cortex developing offering more control. Research has shown infants who have difficulty self regulating at age 6 months are more likely to be noncompliant at 3 yrs. Inability to regulate negative emotions can lead to poor school performance, peer difficulties and conduct disorders.

Caregivers can help regulate by meeting needs of infants and as toddlers providing opportunity to calm down, talking about situations rather than just punishing for emotional displays. Helping see consequences, what happened when used words, what happened when had a tantrum.

Temperament – researchers have found that children vary in their style of behavioral functioning including intensity of moods, distractibility, adaptability, persistence that remains stable over time and situation. Seems to be rooted in biology as different physiological profiles, i.e. cardiac reactions, blood pressure, brain response patterns to stimulation and seen in infants.

Chess and Thomas one way of conceptualizing temperament with three basic patterns

1.     Easy child, generally positive mood and approach, regular body functions, low to moderate energy, regular sleep and eating schedules, easily adapts to new routines, places, people.

2.     Difficult child – negative mood, irregular body functions, high intensity reaction, withdraws from new stimuli, slow to adapt to new situations, routines, people, difficulty with sleeping and eating patterns, cries loudly.

3.     Slow-to-warm-up child somewhat negative, low activity level, withdraws initially but with repeated exposure becomes more comfortable, more interest and involvement.

Kagan identified inhibited temperament – a wariness and fearfulness with unfamiliar people objects and events and uninhibited – react with interest spontaneity and sociability, rooted in biology as present different profiles of physiological responsiveness, different brain wave patterns, and brain activity in different portions of the brain .

Each temperament style child evokes different reactions in response from parents, peers, teachers. Some good fit, on the same wavelength others not so. So biology basis but large environment impacts.

Research suggests sex differences between boys and girls due to environment more than biology. Infancy and preschool no strong clear cut sex difference. By elementary school girls show a greater range of emotions, smile more, more anxiety about school work, family issues, health and other concerns. Parents interact differently with girls and boys, spend more time with infant daughters trying to get them to smile, make more facial expressions when playing with daughter, instruct boys to control emotions.

Older children understand ability to experience contrasting emotions. In adolescence experience strong emotions and often negative emotions, may be more trouble with parent child fit so more negative interactions. Depression seems to increase possibly because physiological changes (i.e. hormones), cognitive issues(changes in self image, thinking about self and future) and social changes (dating, educational pressure).

As noted above the emotional interactions between child and caregiver are important to developing attachment, a strong emotional bond.

Two main theories

1.     learning theory of attachment– primary drives such as hunger are satisfied by primary reinforcers that gratify these biological needs such as food. Secondary reinforcers, acquire reinforcing qualities through association with primary reinforcers so mother gives food  mother is a secondary reinforcer. Hence attachment

Harlow’s experiments with infant monkeys, separated from mothers, food from wire surrogate or terry cloth surrogate, same food, same # of days preferred the cloth contact comfort. (Used to show not just learning but what if alternate primary drive)

2.     ethological view – Bowlby attachment occurs innately, infant signals caregivers, caregivers respond, similar to imprinting. Bowlby began developing his theory upon observing the negative effects of institutionalizing infants and young children. Serious developmental problems, social, intellectual impairments he felt because lack of close emotional bond child and caregiver. Belived due to lack of appropriate attachment.

Bolby identified a fixed sequence of attachment and the regularity of the

sequence suggests a biological/evolutionary basis. Four phases

a. first 2 month infants use signaling behavior, cries, smiles bring caregiver

          physically close

b. 2-6 months smiles, cries restricted to presence of caregiver

c.6-12 months attachment seen in separation anxiety, distress when

          caregiver leaves and reunion behavior, happy upon return and

          stranger anxiety, wariness of someone unfamiliar

          d. Final phase 3 yrs, partnership, child appreciates mother’s feelings,

                   motives, goals

Ainsworth using Bowlby’s ideas in research (Strange situation, p 405) observed 3 distinct patterns of attachment

1.     secure attachment – comfortable with mother, use as secure base to explore environment. Developed as mothers notice and correctly interpret children’s signals, accessible and gentle.

The two insecure attachments mothers were rigid, unresponsive and demanding, often did not feel positive about being parents.

2.     avoidant attachment – less separation anxiety and reunion behavior, tend to avoid or ignore her and play in isolation

3.     ambivalent attachment – tension either excessive clinging or angry rejecting

researchers have added a 4th

4.     disorganized/disoriented – show fear of caregivers, confused facial expressions, indications of stress

The mental concepts of relationships developed through attachment to parents in turn influence relationships developed later in life Bowlby called it internal working models of relationships.

More recently research attachment to fathers. Same processes in ‘Strange situation’. Children with secure attachments to both mother and father show higher self esteem, greater social competence than secure attachment to only one.

Early daycare research suggested possible disruption in attachments but more recent info suggests that the attachment climate at home is what is important in developing good internal working models of relationships.

Disruptions in attachment

Prematurity – preterm infant looks and behaves differently (small, fragile, less alert or responsive), usually medical care necessitates stay in incubator but by 1 yr seem to have rebounded an no neg affects on attachment if responsive supportive environment. Very low birthwt, under 1,250 grams have been found at risk

Adoption and foster care – researchers have found no difference in attachment if adopted first few months but later, even 6-7 months show socioemotional difficulties.

Physically and psychologically abused children tend to fall into the disorganized/disoriented attachment group and have cognitive and socioemotional difficulties 

 Chapter 12

Self -  realization independent, unique, stable entity

Self recognition, bio wired appears around the world about 15-18 months

          recognize self in mirror

Self concept, perceptions hold about oneself

includes categorical self , classify self by observable categories i.e. sex,

race, age, physical categories. As older more abstract, and often more

conflicted, both positive and negative aspects of self. Sense of individuality,

not become someone else, sense of stability your essential self stays the

same, sense of reflection, meta process.

Social comparison, reference others in describing self. Young children unrealistic

          in assessing own ability, ignore feedback suggesting otherwise. Important as

          adolescent and adult move back from social comparison, measure to own

          abilities.

Biological belief that one can impact and control the world, effectance motivation. Early accomplishments of infants are accompanied by positive emotional responses. As older have strong sense of mastery orientation, that achieved goal because of ones efforts rather than just luck. And as adolescents will acknowledge contributions of others to goal mastery. If do not develop sense of mastery, “why bother” attitude learned helplessness - Seligman.

Self esteem – one’s feelings of worth, depends on success in areas in which wants to succeed. Some domains more important than others, cultural differences. Focus on effort rather than product and sincere and appropriate praise

Identity – who a person is, wants to be, what believes and values

Identity crisis – periodcharacterized by uncertainty and self and role in society. (adolescence, divorce, retirement, mid-life crisis)

Moral development – process by which an individual comes to understand as right and wrong          Different theories

1.     Freud – superego, developed in the phallic stage around 5-6 yrs as resolves Oedipal complex (sexual attraction to mother, fear of castration by father, resolved by identification with father and acquires father’s moral values and standards. The superego governs what is acceptable and unacceptable behavior. Girls weaker moral sense as no fear of castration so though attachment to father less emotional intensity. Problem with theory, children seen to know right and wrong much earlier and not weaker for females

2.     Social learning  - acquire moral behavior through rewards and punishments dispensed by others, internalize the ideas

3.     Cognitive-Development – children reason about moral problems

a.     Piaget qualitatively different stages of moral development, begin with moral realism or heternomy judge right and wrong by consequences. Rules are unbreakable and followed by immanent justice, punishment. Progress to moral relativism or autonomy in which motives are taken into account and understands that not every violation is punished. Ex. p 446

b.     Kohlberg built a stage theory upon Piaget’s ideas. Developed by analyzing the reasoning of boys ages 10-16. Three levels. Preconventional level similar to moral realism. Conventional level conforming to the norms of the majority to maintain social order. Postconventional level, meta level, recognizes social contracts of law and individual principles of conscience. Research suggests most stay at the Conventional level and moral development correlates with IQ and educational level.

c.      Gilligan researched moral development and girls, proposes takes a different not inferior course, tend to be more concerned with relationship, caregiving and intimacy and develop a morality of care and responsibility (based on concern) rather than a morality of justice (based on abstract principles of reason and equity).

d.     Turiel suggested a distinction between moral domain, rules that regulate a persons beliefs and societal domain, social conventions.

Moral reasoning however does not always correlate with moral behavior.

Another way to look at development of values and morals is to look at

Prosocial behavior – behavior perform to benefit others

Altruism, behavior carried out to help others without expectation of reward and

Empathy – understanding and appreciation of others’ feelings. See this in 1& 2 yr olds, offer comfort like a cookie, blanket, tissue. As older better able to interpret others emotions but self interests enter into decisions whether to assist others, relieve or increase own distress to help others, alter social standing etc.

Prosocial reasoning also seen as progressive. Eisenberg through prosocial dilemmas in which the interests of one person conflict with those of another or of a group identified 5 phases. Chart p 456. Move from gain for self, concern for others needs and feelings, internalized belief in rights or all individuals and social obligations.

Prosocial behavior best developed through positive reinforcement and imitation of modeling by others, use of induction or reasonable explanations of a situation over power assertion or forced compliance.

Chapter 15

Peer is a companion of approximately the same age and developmental level. Relationships with peers contribute to and can have a significant impact on sense of self. Provide feedback about academic, social, emotional, behavior.

Even infants react differently to, more aroused by peers, smiles, squeals, touching, leaning. By age 2 jointly play with toys, simple games with turn taking such as tag, hide and seek.

Parten found 3 forms of children’s play

1.     solitary play – play alone with toys apart from, without regard for others

2.     parallel play – play independently but next to one another

3.     cooperative play – interacting

With children, in many cultures, often see social pretend or sociodramatic play – use of imagination, symbolic objects, social roles. With boys see more rough and tumble play (physical play with no intent of harm).

Elementary school age more group than dyads, preference for same sex and same behavioral style peers. Adolescents form close intimate friendship with subset of peers often those who resemble themselves in certain traits i.e. orientation to academics, sports. Many form cliques, or belong to a crowd a large group characterized by specific traits or reputation (Breakfast Club). Incr interest toward opposite sex.

Peer group formation – classic experiment Robber’s Cave Study – Sherif. 25 5^th grade boys who did not know one another, divided into 2 groups, separate camps with typical camp activities, dominance relationships, who was in charge seen early on. Could strengthen bond by encouraging cooperation i.e. prepare meals together. Strong group identity. Arranged for both groups to meet, competitions, losing group became conflict ridden, but even stronger identify issues as group members, increasing antagonistic toward other group as competing more. When tried cooperative activities such as movies or shared meals resulted in fights not harmony but when had to work together i.e. food truck broke down all worked together to restart engine more cooperative and actually forming friendships.

Similarly adolescents who develop an extreme orientation to peer group and exclude or see parents as the other group are more likely to become involved in peer pressure. Often see increase use of alcohol and drugs, behavioral problems.

In research have found that the more similar a model to person trying to ‘sell’ idea more influence, more likely imitate. As peers are more similar prime candidates for imitation whether positive or negative. Also peers as reinforcers, directly influence through verbal and nonverbal messages what behavior is acceptable and what is not.

Using sociometric nomination and sociometric rating scale in which child responds to questions regarding peers on social dimensions developed ideas regarding characteristics of popular and unpopular children

Physical attractiveness – children believe children with attractive faces are more friendly, intelligent and socially competent than unattractive faces.

Motor Skills – boys and girls who are coordinated, strong and skilled in physical activities are rated more popular and socially competent by students and teachers

Social Skills – popular children engage in prosocial cooperative and normative behaviors. Rejected children are more likely to be aggressive or withdrawn, often displaying socially inappropriate behavior so receive little social reinforcement.

Verbal skills – popular children utilize diplomatic verbalizations, coherent conversations, unpopular children make irrelevant comments.

Emotion Regulation – Unpopular children are irritable, complain, get upset, are inattentive or easily distracted

Once rejected always rejected and often leads to lower school achievement and emotional problems. Help children not be picked on, victims of aggression p 556, victims often physically weak, passive, anxious, sensitive, quiet children who react to bullying by giving in or crying. Help develop self confidence with special talents or abilities, physical training, build friendship with another child, encourage involvement with people or activities outside of the home.

Origins of social competence – important aspects include secure attachment to caregivers, caregivers as role models of social competence, caregivers providing appropriate instruction on ways to behave in group, experiences with peers when young, helping children read cues, encode information about social interaction and determine appropriate response. Some kids misinterpret cues and therefore respond inappropriately.  

Training social skills

Exposing children to live or recorded models displaying desirable behaviors accompanied by a narration of self talk appears to be an effective training technique. Using successive approximation reinforcement (social or material reinforcement for gradual steps toward social interaction) of operant conditioning also helpful. As is coaching, direct instruction often using role-play or acting out situations.

Conceptions of friendship

About 80% of 3-4 yr olds spend a substantial amount of time with one peer, a friend. At this age friend is likely synonymous with playmate, games, sharing, pretend together. Middle school years, friendship motivated by being accepted, usually same age and sex, more gossip, sharing information about self and others, loyalty issues, generosity, helpfulness integrated into idea of a friend. By adolescence share more private thoughts and feelings, expect mutual understanding, help solving problems. Similarities in attitudes, and beliefs more important.

Functions of friendship

Sullivan in 1950s suggested that the capacity for intimacy as an adult was nurtured by same sex friendships in childhood. Seems true. Correlation friendships and decrease anxiety and depression, offers affection, emotional support, exhibit higher levels of self esteem, manage family problems better, individuals develop social skills, cooperation, competition, and conflict resolution skills as try to maintain friendship.